Tuesday, September 30, 2014

Type 2 diabetes

Diabetes mellitus type 2

 Diabetes mellitus type 2 (formerly noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) or adult-onset diabetes) is a metabolic disorder that is characterized by hyperglycemia (high blood sugar) in the context of insulin resistance and relative lack of insulin.[2] This is in contrast to diabetes mellitus type 1, in which there is an absolute lack of insulin due to breakdown of islet cells in the pancreas.[3] The classic symptoms are excess thirst, frequent urination, and constant hunger. Type 2 diabetes makes up about 90% of cases of diabetes, with the other 10% due primarily to diabetes mellitus type 1 and gestational diabetes. Obesity is thought to be the primary cause of type 2 diabetes in people who are genetically predisposed to the disease.

Type 2 diabetes is initially managed by increasing exercise and dietary changes. If blood sugar levels are not adequately lowered by these measures, medications such as metformin or insulin may be needed. In those on insulin, there is typically the requirement to routinely check blood sugar levels.
Rates of type 2 diabetes have increased markedly since 1960 in parallel with obesity. As of 2010 there were approximately 285 million people diagnosed with the disease compared to around 30 million in 1985.[4][5] Long-term complications from high blood sugar can include heart disease, strokes, diabetic retinopathy where eyesight is affected, kidney failure which may require dialysis, and poor blood flow in the limbs leading to amputations. The acute complication of ketoacidosis, a feature of type 1 diabetes, is uncommon,[6] however hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state may occur.

Signs and symptoms

The classic symptoms of diabetes are polyuria (frequent urination), polydipsia (increased thirst), polyphagia (increased hunger), and weight loss.[7] Other symptoms that are commonly present at diagnosis include a history of blurred vision, itchiness, peripheral neuropathy, recurrent vaginal infections, and fatigue.[3] Many people, however, have no symptoms during the first few years and are diagnosed on routine testing.[3] People with type 2 diabetes mellitus may rarely present with hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (a condition of very high blood sugar associated with a decreased level of consciousness and low blood pressure).[3]

Complications

Main article: Complications of diabetes mellitus
Type 2 diabetes is typically a chronic disease associated with a ten-year-shorter life expectancy.[4] This is partly due to a number of complications with which it is associated, including: two to four times the risk of cardiovascular disease, including ischemic heart disease and stroke; a 20-fold increase in lower limb amputations, and increased rates of hospitalizations.[4] In the developed world, and increasingly elsewhere, type 2 diabetes is the largest cause of nontraumatic blindness and kidney failure.[8] It has also been associated with an increased risk of cognitive dysfunction and dementia through disease processes such as Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia.[9] Other complications include acanthosis nigricans, sexual dysfunction, and frequent infections.

Cause

The development of type 2 diabetes is caused by a combination of lifestyle and genetic factors.[8][10] While some of these factors are under personal control, such as diet and obesity, other factors are not, such as increasing age, female gender, and genetics.[4] A lack of sleep has been linked to type 2 diabetes.[11] This is believed to act through its effect on metabolism.[11] The nutritional status of a mother during fetal development may also play a role, with one proposed mechanism being that of altered DNA methylation.[12]

Lifestyle

Main article: Lifestyle causes of diabetes mellitus type 2
A number of lifestyle factors are known to be important to the development of type 2 diabetes, including obesity and overweight (defined by a body mass index of greater than 25), lack of physical activity, poor diet, stress, and urbanization.[4][13] Excess body fat is associated with 30% of cases in those of Chinese and Japanese descent, 60-80% of cases in those of European and African descent, and 100% of cases in Pima Indians and Pacific Islanders.[3] Those who are not obese often have a high waist–hip ratio.[3]
Dietary factors also influence the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. Consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks in excess is associated with an increased risk.[14][15] The type of fats in the diet are also important, with saturated fats and trans fatty acids increasing the risk, and polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fat decreasing the risk.[10] Eating lots of white rice appears to also play a role in increasing risk.[16] A lack of exercise is believed to cause 7% of cases.[17] Persistent organic pollutants may also play a role.[18]

Genetics

Main article: Genetic causes of diabetes mellitus type 2
Most cases of diabetes involve many genes, with each being a small contributor to an increased probability of becoming a type 2 diabetic.[4] If one identical twin has diabetes, the chance of the other developing diabetes within his lifetime is greater than 90%, while the rate for nonidentical siblings is 25–50%.[3] As of 2011, more than 36 genes had been found that contribute to the risk of type 2 diabetes.[19] All of these genes together still only account for 10% of the total heritable component of the disease.[19] The TCF7L2 allele, for example, increases the risk of developing diabetes by 1.5 times and is the greatest risk of the common genetic variants.[3] Most of the genes linked to diabetes are involved in beta cell functions.[3]
There are a number of rare cases of diabetes that arise due to an abnormality in a single gene (known as monogenic forms of diabetes or "other specific types of diabetes").[3][4] These include maturity onset diabetes of the young (MODY), Donohue syndrome, and Rabson-Mendenhall syndrome, among others.[4] Maturity onset diabetes of the young constitute 1–5% of all cases of diabetes in young people.[20]

Medical conditions

There are a number of medications and other health problems that can predispose to diabetes.[21] Some of the medications include: glucocorticoids, thiazides, beta blockers, atypical antipsychotics,[22] and statins.[23] Those who have previously had gestational diabetes are at a higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes.[7] Other health problems that are associated include: acromegaly, Cushing's syndrome, hyperthyroidism, pheochromocytoma, and certain cancers such as glucagonomas.[21] Testosterone deficiency is also associated with type 2 diabetes.[24][25]

Pathophysiology

Type 2 diabetes is due to insufficient insulin production from beta cells in the setting of insulin resistance.[3] Insulin resistance, which is the inability of cells to respond adequately to normal levels of insulin, occurs primarily within the muscles, liver, and fat tissue.[26] In the liver, insulin normally suppresses glucose release. However, in the setting of insulin resistance, the liver inappropriately releases glucose into the blood.[4] The proportion of insulin resistance versus beta cell dysfunction differs among individuals, with some having primarily insulin resistance and only a minor defect in insulin secretion and others with slight insulin resistance and primarily a lack of insulin secretion.[3]
Other potentially important mechanisms associated with type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance include: increased breakdown of lipids within fat cells, resistance to and lack of incretin, high glucagon levels in the blood, increased retention of salt and water by the kidneys, and inappropriate regulation of metabolism by the central nervous system.[4] However, not all people with insulin resistance develop diabetes, since an impairment of insulin secretion by pancreatic beta cells is also required.[3]

Diagnosis

WHO diabetes diagnostic criteria[27][28]  edit
Condition 2 hour glucose Fasting glucose HbA1c
Unit mmol/l(mg/dl) mmol/l(mg/dl) %
Normal <7.8 (<140) <6.1 (<110) <6.0
Impaired fasting glycaemia <7.8 (<140) ≥ 6.1(≥110) & <7.0(<126) 6.0–6.4
Impaired glucose tolerance ≥7.8 (≥140) <7.0 (<126) 6.0–6.4
Diabetes mellitus ≥11.1 (≥200) ≥7.0 (≥126) ≥6.5
The World Health Organization definition of diabetes (both type 1 and type 2) is for a single raised glucose reading with symptoms, otherwise raised values on two occasions, of either:[29]
  • fasting plasma glucose ≥ 7.0 mmol/l (126 mg/dl)
or
A random blood sugar of greater than 11.1 mmol/l (200 mg/dL) in association with typical symptoms[7] or a glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) of greater than 6.5% is another method of diagnosing diabetes.[4] In 2009 an International Expert Committee that included representatives of the American Diabetes Association (ADA), the International Diabetes Federation (IDF), and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) recommended that a threshold of ≥6.5% HbA1c should be used to diagnose diabetes.[30] This recommendation was adopted by the American Diabetes Association in 2010.[31] Positive tests should be repeated unless the person presents with typical symptoms and blood sugars >11.1 mmol/l (>200 mg/dl).[30]
Threshold for diagnosis of diabetes is based on the relationship between results of glucose tolerance tests, fasting glucose or HbA1c and complications such as retinal problems.[4] A fasting or random blood sugar is preferred over the glucose tolerance test, as they are more convenient for people.[4] HbA1c has the advantages that fasting is not required and results are more stable but has the disadvantage that the test is more costly than measurement of blood glucose.[32] It is estimated that 20% of people with diabetes in the United States do not realize that they have the disease.[4]
Diabetes mellitus type 2 is characterized by high blood glucose in the context of insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency.[2] This is in contrast to diabetes mellitus type 1 in which there is an absolute insulin deficiency due to destruction of islet cells in the pancreas and gestational diabetes mellitus that is a new onset of high blood sugars associated with pregnancy.[3] Type 1 and type 2 diabetes can typically be distinguished based on the presenting circumstances.[30] If the diagnosis is in doubt antibody testing may be useful to confirm type 1 diabetes and C-peptide levels may be useful to confirm type 2 diabetes,[33] with C-peptide levels normal or high in type 2 diabetes, but low in type 1 diabetes.

Screening

No major organization recommends universal screening for diabetes as there is no evidence that such a program would improve outcomes.[34] Screening is recommended by the United States Preventive Services Task Force in adults without symptoms whose blood pressure is greater than 135/80 mmHg.[35] For those whose blood pressure is less, the evidence is insufficient to recommend for or against screening.[35] The World Health Organization recommends only testing those groups at high risk.[34] High-risk groups in the United States include: those over 45 years old; those with a first degree relative with diabetes; some ethnic groups, including Hispanics, African-Americans, and Native-Americans; a history of gestational diabetes; polycystic ovary syndrome; excess weight; and conditions associated with metabolic syndrome.[7]

Prevention

Main article: Prevention of diabetes mellitus type 2
Onset of type 2 diabetes can be delayed or prevented through proper nutrition and regular exercise.[36][37] Intensive lifestyle measures may reduce the risk by over half.[8][38] The benefit of exercise occurs regardless of the person's initial weight or subsequent weight loss.[39] Evidence for the benefit of dietary changes alone, however, is limited,[40] with some evidence for a diet high in green leafy vegetables[41] and some for limiting the intake of sugary drinks.[14] In those with impaired glucose tolerance, diet and exercise either alone or in combination with metformin or acarbose may decrease the risk of developing diabetes.[8][42] Lifestyle interventions are more effective than metformin.[8]

Management

Further information: Diabetes management
Management of type 2 diabetes focuses on lifestyle interventions, lowering other cardiovascular risk factors, and maintaining blood glucose levels in the normal range.[8] Self-monitoring of blood glucose for people with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes was recommended by the British National Health Service in 2008,[43] however the benefit of self monitoring in those not using multi-dose insulin is questionable.[8][44] Managing other cardiovascular risk factors, such as hypertension, high cholesterol, and microalbuminuria, improves a person's life expectancy.[8] Intensive blood pressure management (less than 130/80 mmHg) as opposed to standard blood pressure management (less than 140–160/85–100 mmHg) results in a slight decrease in stroke risk but no effect on overall risk of death.[45]
Intensive blood sugar lowering (HbA1c<6%) as opposed to standard blood sugar lowering (HbA1c of 7–7.9%) does not appear to change mortality.[46][47] The goal of treatment is typically an HbA1c of less than 7% or a fasting glucose of less than 6.7 mmol/L (120 mg/dL); however these goals may be changed after professional clinical consultation, taking into account particular risks of hypoglycemia and life expectancy.[7] It is recommended that all people with type 2 diabetes get regular ophthalmology examination.[3] Treating gum disease in those with diabetes may result in a small improvement in blood sugar levels.[48]

Lifestyle

A proper diet and exercise are the foundations of diabetic care,[7] with a greater amount of exercise yielding better results.[49] Aerobic exercise leads to a decrease in HbA1c and improved insulin sensitivity.[49] Resistance training is also useful and the combination of both types of exercise may be most effective.[49] A diabetic diet that promotes weight loss is important.[50] While the best diet type to achieve this is controversial,[50] a low glycemic index diet has been found to improve blood sugar control.[51] Culturally appropriate education may help people with type 2 diabetes control their blood sugar levels, for up to six months at least.[52] If changes in lifestyle in those with mild diabetes has not resulted in improved blood sugars within six weeks, medications should then be considered.[7] There is not enough evidence to determine if lifestyle interventions affect mortality in those who already have DM.

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Setting up an exercise schedule

Exercise for Beginners - Setting Up a Complete Program

A well-rounded program includes cardio, weight training and flexibility. Knowing how to put these together in a week of workouts can be confusing. Should you do cardio and strength training on the same day? Which one should you do first? This will depend on your goals, schedule and fitness level, which means there are endless ways to set up your workout program. Below are some basic guidelines for getting started with a complete exercise program.
  • For Beginners:  You should start slowly with a basic cardio program and a full body resistance training routine. You'll want to have recovery days to allow your body to rest and your muscles to heal from your new routine. A typical beginner program will include about 3 days of cardio and 2 days of strength training. If you're not sure about your fitness level, you can take the quiz, What's Your Fitness Level? to get insight and resources to help you get started. Below is a sample schedule just to give you an idea of a typical week of workouts:
  • Sample Routine for Beginning Exercisers
Monday: Cardio 20-30 minutes. You can choose from one of the following Sample Cardio Workouts:
Tuesday: Total Body Strength and core training. You can choose from one of the following Sample Strength Workouts:
Wednesday: Rest or gentle yoga/stretching Thursday: Cardio-20-30 minutes.  You can choose from one of the following Sample Cardio Workouts:
Friday:  Total Body Strength and core training. You can choose from one of the following Sample Strength Workouts:
Saturday: Cardio-20-30 minutes.  You can choose from one of the following Sample Cardio Workouts:
  • For Intermediate Exercisers: If you've been exercising for a while and your goal is to lose weight, you want to shoot for 20-60 minutes of cardio about 5 or more times a week.  Your strength training schedule will depend on what type of workouts you're doing (e.g., total body training or a split routine).  You can do cardio and weight training on the same day, depending on your time constraints. It doesn't matter which one you do first, so vary your routine and try different combinations to find the one that is right for you.
  • Sample Split Routine for Upper and Lower Body:
Monday:  30-Minute Cardio Medley Workout, Upper Body Training Tuesday: 45-Minute Treadmill Interval Workout, Core Training
Wednesday: 30-Minute Low Impact Cardio Blast Workout (2 circuits), Lower body Thursday: Rest, stretch or yoga
Friday: Total Body Strength or Circuit Training Saturday: Cardio-60 minutes, stretch
  • For Intermediate/Advanced Exercisers: If you're more advanced, you can split your routine further, focusing more attention on each muscle group.  You can also increase the intensity of your cardio, incorporating interval training and other advanced techniques to burn calories and build endurance. 
  • Sample Split Routing for Advanced Exercisers:
Monday: Chest, Shoulders & Triceps, HIIT Cardio Tuesday: Lower Body and Core
Wednesday: Back & Biceps, Boredom Buster Cardio Thursday: Rest, stretch or yoga
Friday: Basic Total Body Strength Saturday: Advanced Intense Intervals

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Sending a kid to private school vs. public

Public schools or private schools?
In the world of parenting, this can be a sensitive subject. That’s why Dave and Rachel decided to touch on it in their upcoming book, Smart Money Smart Kids.
In this passage from the book, Dave discusses these options and why he eventually chose to send his kids to public school.
Many parents, including Sharon and me, have had to choose between sending their child to private versus public schools for elementary, middle, and high school. There are three major factors families consider in making this decision. One is safety. Parents may feel the public school their child is zoned for just isn’t safe. The second factor is academics. Parents may believe a private school has superior academics to the public school. And then the third factor is spiritual environment. For instance, a Christian—Protestant or Catholic—may want their kids in a Christian school for the spiritual environment that school offers.
Those are three really good reasons to consider a private school. But to automatically assume that private schools are the only way to raise your children well is absolutely absurd, and to assume that your child will be more successful if he attends a private school is ridiculous. There’s just no credible research to prove this.
Growing up, although it was a different day, I attended public schools. So when Sharon and I faced this decision for our kids, we looked at the public schools in our particular county. There were no issues with safety, and the schools had excellent academics. And obviously the school system has to do things legally, so the schools are not “Christian,” but we are in the buckle of the Bible Belt, so most of the teachers were Christians. Because we had the best of all worlds, the Ramsey kids went to public schools.
As you begin to make your own decision, there are three things you must remember. First, you cannot live in the land of drama or fear. You can’t overstate the safety issue to rationalize the purchase—“Oh, my child is gonna die if send him to that public school.” Don’t overstate the safety issue as a parent.
Second, you can’t depend on the school to be your child’s only model of a spiritual walk. Your children will not get this in a Christian school if they are not getting it at home. It’s your job to lay the foundation for your kids’ spiritual walks, not the school’s job. Anybody who’s ever been around a “Christian school” knows that a lot of bad things can go on there too. So to assume that it’s a bubble or a utopia is absolutely absurd.
Third, remember to use common sense when considering academics. Are private schools sometimes academically superior? Sure. But sometimes they’re not. There is no correlation between attending a private preschool, elementary, or high school and future success. I see no evidence or research to support this.
Now, do private schools have higher graduation rates, do more of their students get into college, and are the schools academically superior? Possibly, but even then, we can’t say that more private-school kids end up winning in life because of the schools they attended. A child’s family environment, socioeconomic environment, neighborhood, and parents have a lot more to do with his future success than where he attends school.So if you’re going to look at private school as an option, it has to be a reasonable part of your budget. You cannot go into drama mode and bankrupt your family so your four-year-old can go to a private daycare. I talk to people all the time who are completely unreasonable about this. You must use common sense in the discussion and in making your decision.visit page
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How to cut your spending

 A successful way to save money is to reduce expenses. There are many ways you can stretch your dollars and help avoid that "too much money at the end of the month" feeling. Some of these steps will take planning and investigation but they will be well worth the effort. Others you will be able to implement immediately. Some will require a small investment but have a substantial long-term payoff. Your ability to implement those will depend on available cash and your budget.

 

Where is your money going?

1
Work out what you're spending money on now. What you will need first, is a clear idea of where your money is going, then you can look at ways to cut fluff and lower the cost of your required living expense. Always keep in mind that it is not just about cheaper; it is about efficiency. Analyze your needs and do the math. Most importantly, understand that reducing expenses is a lifestyle change and a change in your thinking patterns. Never let yourself believe that pennies do not count.


2
Determine where you spend your money. If you do not know where your money is going, you are most likely spending too much. You can get a solid idea in as little as one month and as you continue, you will see patterns develop that you can address. Write down everything you buy down to the last dollar. Do not stop at the obvious expenses like rent, utilities, gasoline and food. Include the ancillary items like sodas and snacks as well as gum or tobacco. Use a Row-by-Column ledger, spreadsheet, or other software to keep track every month. If you only use a debit card for your purchases, the bank will do this for you.

Curtailing overspending

1
Immediately remove unnecessary routine purchases. While it is likely this will not be the largest savings area, it is important and easy. Is the coffee shop on your way to work necessary? How critical are the three sodas or snacks a day you buy from the office vending machine at $1.50 each? A cup of coffee that you made at home is only 25-35 cents, as is a soda you bought in a store as part of a 12-pack. Do you seriously have to rent all those movies (and pay those late fees) each month? Have you checked to see whether your library has movies, or calculated the cost of switching to Netflix and BlockBuster Online? Those ten lottery tickets… the odds against you are astronomical. This is quick and most of it is habit. There will be some psychological pain at first but when you add up the dollars you’ll see a big difference instantly.
  • Make a shopping list before you go to the store and stick to it. This is especially helpful to impulse buyers. Did you ever go in for a carton of eggs and come out with a basket of 15 items? Did you need 2 for 1 bags of marshmallows or the jumbo box of cereal just because it was on sale? No. You probably did not need half of those extra things but ended buying them anyway. A shopping list gives you a clear idea of what you need and eliminates unnecessary purchases.

Cutting utilities expenses

1
Address your utilities.
  • Heating and cooling (gas or electric): When you leave the house, set your thermostat to an "away" setting. Do not set it so far from comfortable that it takes too much of time to return to comfort when you get home: 65°F or 18°C in the winter and 80°F or 27°C in the summer might be reasonable numbers to use. A programmable thermostat will do this for you automatically.
    • Set it to adjust the thermostat a while before the heating or cooling is needed, such as in the pre-dawn hours to wake to comfortable temperatures and in the mid-afternoon to arrive home to them, and to provide less heating or cooling immediately when it will not be needed.
    • Consider investing in ceiling fans – you can get these for as little as US$20 and they dramatically reduce cost of heating and cooling by circulating the air more efficiently. If your expenses are already low, and you will not be staying where you are for long, you may not save enough to pay for the fan, however. Also, consider electric blankets and mattress pads.
  • Electric: Lighting is expensive. When you leave a room, turn off the light. The idea that it takes more energy to turn on a light than to keep it on is false, as turning on a light only burns as much electricity as burning it for fractions of a second.[1] Energy efficient bulbs work. This is an investment that will pay off over time, but there is a significant savings to be gained. (this energy calculator can help). Turn off your computer/laptop when you are not using it – (probably) the only reason you leave it on is convenience. Any voltage adapters (including the ones in stereo components) use electricity, even if they are not charged or plugged in to the device. Of the total energy used to run home electronics, 40 percent is consumed when the appliances are turned off. Either pull the plug on the devices when not in use or buy a device to do it for you, such as a Smart Power Strip ($31 to $44, at http://www.smarthomeusa.com www.smarthomeusa.com]If you have a digital box with an auxiliary AC outlet, plug your TV into it, and program the box to shut off the outlet when the box is turned off. For stereo components, plug them all into a power bar that can easily be switched off when not in use.Open the drapes during the day for light instead of burning electricity. Only use electricity when you need it.Clean the radiator on the back of your refrigerator, if it is dirty, this will improve the efficiency of one of the larger consumers of energy in your household.
  • Water: Save water, save money. Invest in a shower-reduction kit – they cost nearly nothing and will start saving you money immediately. They work by reducing the flow to the showerhead and the change is barely noticeable. Learn to take quicker showers – an inexpensive egg timer is a good way to help. Repair leaky toilets and faucets – this is an enormous waste of water and easy to fix. Reduce your lawn watering to minimum needs. If you have a pool, keep it covered when it’s not in use to reduce evaporation – also, if it’s heated that will dramatically increase evaporation as well (only heat your pool to keep it from freezing, and invest in a thermal blanket). Also, if you are not using the faucet turn it off -- e.g., when brushing teeth do not leave faucet running. Do not buy bottled water except in rare and unusual circumstances; excess chlorine can be removed from tap water by letting it stand in a pitcher in the refrigerator for a few hours, and the fluoride in tap water makes teeth stronger, reducing dental problems and bills.
  • Gas and miscellaneous: Do laundry as often as necessary but as little as possible – for many people this is a pleasant step. Reduce the temperature of your shower by a couple of degrees; the less work your water heater does the more money you’ll save. Also keep your water heater thermostat as low as practical; 120 degrees Fahrenheit is often recommended to minimize power consumption and risk of burns. (Turn off the house power before opening any panel to adjust it.) Use the microwave instead of the oven whenever possible – the cost just to preheat an oven is more than the cost to cook a meal in the microwave. Open the windows when it’s nice outside to reduce heating (and cooling) costs.If you live where natural gas is used only in the winter months, arrange with your local utility to do a seasonal shutoff so that you are not saddled with fixed monthly service charges for the "privilege" of being connected to the gas service even though you are not using it. With one supplier, it is $17/month. In the 8 months that you do not need the service, you're charged $17 X 8 = $136, but the season shutoff and turn on costs $54.
  • Cable and telephone: Do you need a thousand channels and every single premium channel available including the high definition packages? You can save the full $100+ on your cable bill every month by watching TV free online, and save most of it while avoiding time-wasting and unnecessary-purchase-inducing commercials by renting DVDs instead, for instance through the vending machines Redbox or through the mail-order company Netflix. However, if you have cable internet, it may actually be cheaper to keep basic cable than to pay for internet alone. If you want to save money, take a close look at your priorities. For your telephone, shop around based on your use. If you make many long-distance calls to family and friends, perhaps one of the unlimited plans would save money. If all your calls are local, you probably can get by with a bare-bones option. Consider that your cell phone may have free long distance; therefore, removing the need of having long distance on a landline. Look into the Voice-Over-IP (phone over the internet) for your telephone solutions. Some services, such as Skype, gChat (from Google), and Windows Live! allow you to make free video calls to other users as well as make low cost calls to cell phones and land lines from your computer - including international calls. Other VoIP services, such as Vonage, are not an option for people with DSL, which is tied to their landline.
  • Cell phone: Text messages cost money. "Oh no, I have unlimited text!" Oh? How much does that option cost you? Do you even need a cell phone? Does everyone in your family need a cell phone? Parents should place rules on cell phone use. Another thing to consider is if you need a cell phone then do you need a landline at home? Consider consolidating. If your cell phone use is occasional only, consider a pay-as-you-go plan. Do consider, however, that a cheap unlimited data and navigation plan can sometimes save money by allowing instant price comparisons and quality checks.
  • Cell phone saving plans: Some mobile phone plans are genuinely good and money-saving; but make sure that you shop around first for the deal that best suits you. Many companies offer either contract or PAYG plans based on the cell phone habits of the user, for example, someone who texts an awful lot or someone who prefers to call. For example, some companies reward you for topping up for a little bit a month with hundreds of free texts, which can prove handy and are much cheaper than calls. Remember, calls to networks other than yours, and landlines, are often pricier. Avoid "traps" in cell phone plans such as inordinate per-kilobyte or per-message rates, often over some threshold. Look for a plan with modest, if any, overage charges. For instance, Sprint smartphone data is unlimited.
2
Use solar lighting. There are some cheap solar lights on the market that work very well. There are also more expensive ones that have other functions as well. The best thing is that solar lighting functions just as well and is just as bright as those lights that you plug into the wall and you can leave it all night and recharge it in the daytime when you're ready.

Cutting down on vehicle expenses

  1. 1
    Reconsider gasoline and miscellaneous auto costs. When gas was rationed during World War II, a popular slogan was "Is this trip necessary?" Ask yourself that every time you get in your car.
    • Make a list before you go to the store so you do not have to make extra trips.
    • Do not go for a drive for pleasure – walk instead or choose other forms of entertainment (for example, reading or exercising).
  2. 2
    Check the pressure in your tires. Convertibles get better mileage with the top up (although the slight pleasure for the mile or two per gallon sacrificed with the top down is cheap entertainment, assuming one has already paid the considerable extra money for a convertible). A poorly running engine is a huge waste – even a spark plug change can make a big difference, as can clean oil. In addition, the less you drive, the less often you will change tires, oil, or need maintenance. That is a savings-over-time, of course, but it will mount up.

3
Drive smarter.

 Another way to save gas (and money) is to change your driving habits. By simply driving more slowly, or less aggressively, you can save significant amounts of money (calculate for yourself at this web site [2]). Take particular care to avoid driving in heavy traffic, which causes no joy and little efficiency gain over public transportation, and to avoid where parking will be expensive. Public transportation mapping and schedules online, often provided by transit agencies, can make that a great alternative in cities.

Reducing entertainment and fashion costs

 

Cut down on entertainment. It is astounding how many people complain about money then describe the latest release of a movie with the cost of theater popcorn. In addition, professional sports event, a music concert, or tickets to a play can run hundreds of dollars for a couple on a date. Seriously, can you tell the difference (blindfolded) between a $30 bottle of wine and a $9 bottle of wine? When you do dine out, think about the prices on the menu first. Consider a meal share if the restaurant offers that option. Never, ever order delivery of expensive food; you are wastefully enjoying only the food and not the atmosphere when you could cook for yourself far more cheaply. Look for vacation bargains – consider taking the kids camping instead of one of the expensive amusement parks.

  • Most people, except for serious athletes, actors and musicians (as the case may be) cannot tell any difference between a great and good performance. Even if they can, most will enjoy increased variety and frequency much more. Enjoy local high school and non-prestigious college sports, community theater and orchestras conveniently, for little money (with typically nice but inexpensive meals in the vicinity), and socialize and contribute to community spirit while you are at it.

2
Make the most of your clothes and other fashion accessories rather than buying more unnecessarily. Rediscover and show off old ones "lost" in storage or the back of a closet, and organize your wardrobe (or whatever you keep them in) and habits to prevent "losing" them again.


Spending less on food and drink

 

Focus on food. The only real difference between a $1.99 can of corn and a $0.63 can of corn is $1.36, and the satisfaction of knowing you're not overpaying largely to feed a cycle of ads to make yourself and others fret about not paying more. (Sure there are exceptions; people on low-sodium restricted diets will often have to pay more). The grocery store is a place you can save big.

  • Look for foods that are marked "WIC" for savings. Those have been approved for the Women, Infants and Children program by the USDA Department of Food and Nutrition Services… healthy, nutritious and inexpensive. That ring of cooked shrimp is on sale and sure looks tasty. Would you prefer a grilled chicken breast with green beans and rice? Make dining in an experience instead of just a convenience. It is possible to spend as much on home food as you would by eating out if you are wasteful.
  • Buy foods that are on sale, especially meats. Most supermarkets regularly cycle through various meats for specials; you will get to try them all just the same. The difference between expensive beef and other beef is just extra fat and tenderness compatible with not-thorough cooking in the expensive beef.
  • Invest $10 in a coffee pot, or $100 in an espresso machine (pump-driven is best, but expensive ones can die just like cheap ones). Making your coffee at home instead of purchasing your $1, $3, or $7 custom latte at the coffee shop will save you money.
  • When purchasing meat items, aim for pieces where you can identify the body part from which it came. Ground beef, although cheap, is processed which increases its price. Tougher cuts of meat can be slow-cooked and made incredibly tender. Also larger pieces can be cooked in bulk and used for several different recipes. (Cook one large piece and when tender, tear it up for use in enchiladas, sandwiches, stews or soups, etc. Simply store in individual portions, labeled with the type of meat and date, for later use.) Organ meat (chicken hearts and gizzards, beef hearts, tripe) are often far cheaper than normal cuts, and can be used to make tasty and filling stews.
  • Avoid large packages of fresh produce to avoid spoilage; frozen produce will extend the shelf life of all your fruit and vegetables.
  • Buy fresh foods that are in season. They will cost less than the fresh food flown in from the other side of the world; the customer has to pay for the fuel that got the food there.

  1. 2
    Consider taking your lunch to work instead of buying lunch each day. Even an inexpensive lunch out is several dollars a day – do the math.
  2. 3
    Use coupons whenever possible. Make sure these are on items you would normally eat so you do not buy groceries that will be wasted by sitting in your cupboards forever or spoil in your refrigerator. Also use buy store specials and use store customer cards when possible toward food purchases. Consider, however, that store brands are just as good as and often cheaper than name brands with coupons.
  3. 4
    Look into joining a warehouse club. The price of the membership is usually made up in the first shopping. They carry name-brand products and take coupons. In addition, by not having to shop as often, you spend less money by not being in the store every week and risking impulse purchases. Warehouse club shopping must be done with discretion or you will not save money.
  4. 5
    Measure product use carefully. For example, soap powder, flour, dishwasher detergent or cereal. Do not be wasteful with the product just because it comes in a large container.
  1. 6
    Buy products you will use instead of substituting just because it is on your list and the only item available. Are you going to enjoy that box of cereal that is not your regular brand, or is it going to sit on your shelf uneaten?
  2. 7
    Be aware of the influence that product promotions do have on your purchase habits. Do your best to track this. If a promotion is luring you in, ask yourself if you normally use the product. If not, ask yourself what possible benefit it will be to start using it now. If you only want it because it is stuck in front of your face and seems appealing, that is not enough of a reason to purchase it.
8
Avoid or minimize addictive or mind-altering substances, those which are illegal, currently expensive, decrease current productivity, decrease future productivity, cause health problems, or decrease judgment undermining reduction of expenses. Alcohol has all of these adverse consequences.


Making insurance savings

 

1
Address your insurance costs: The fastest way for some people to reduce monthly expenses will be in the area of health, auto and life insurance. Companies that sell those are incredibly competitive. Get some bids from different companies. When you do this, bear in mind that lower initial premiums will not always be the most cost efficient!
  • Auto Insurance: Look at your deductible. Avoid jumping to increase your deductible – analyze the entire plan based on your needs and expectations; do a risk analysis first. If you have an inexperienced driver in your house and you do not have savings, having a high deductible might not be the best choice. If your car is financed, you may have minimum insurance requirements. However if you have a long history of good driving and you own your car, outright, you might consider a high deductible to save on premiums.
  • Health Insurance: Explore alternatives. Shop around for plans that are consistent and cost-efficient with your lifestyle. Consider your needs versus what you have. A single man in perfect health in his mid-30’s might choose a plan with a higher co pay or co-insurance and lower premiums, whereas a married couple wanting to start a family might do better with higher premiums but more extensive coverage. In other cases, prescription benefits might be the most important. The point is to look at what you must have .
  • Life Insurance: There is no question that this is important – for many people. The rule of thumb for someone with a family is three to five years' replacement income. However, if you are a 20ish single consider carefully and determine if you are over-insured. If you’re married in your mid-60’s have you looked at comparative plans from places like AARP? If you are most interested in "burial policies" then, again, these companies are incredibly competitive. We would like to leave our loved ones wealthy if our demise, but not at the expense of your quality of life right now.
  • Home (and Renter’s) Insurance: This can be a large expense and many home owners have no idea how much they’re paying because it comes out of their house payments – out of sight, out of mind. Review your plan with your agent. Are your personal possessions worth the $250,000 you have on the policy? Also look for areas that are lacking. Is water damage covered; snow damage; hail damage? Think whether you will need those. Is anything important excluded? Is anything irrelevant included? Yes, Great-Aunt Martha’s rocking chair has sentimental value, but do you need a special rider to cover it?

Saving money on goods in general

 

1
Consider pre-owned items. This is a great way to save significant amounts of money while recycling! If you absolutely must buy something, there are options other than a mall anchor store or a big-box superstore. There are large thrift stores (e.g. Goodwill) and smaller church-run stores that have some incredible bargains on everything from home knickknacks to appliances to clothing. It is beyond imaginable how fast a 4-year old will outgrow shoes (when that happens, re-donate them so somebody else can benefit). Look for garage sales – your neighbors will not think less of you because you bought the winter jacket they are trying to sell. Have your own garage sale and they might want what you no longer need. There are online sites that often have bargains (like Craigslist.org, Overstock.com and eBay.com).


2
Save money on razors. If you shave compare razors for durability. Some shave satisfactorily for many, many times longer than others, making their cost of up to a few dollars each cartridge relatively insignificant.

3
Avoid items, however cheap or appealing, which have a primary effect of causing large and unnecessary spending. Some of these items, such as printers and suits, though rarely vehicles, are helpful to get rid of even if they are not broken. Culprits include:
  • Inkjet printers (a laser printer can cost as little as $100 and cost about 3 cents each page to print, rather than 25 cents or more, with fast waterproof output.) Color laser printers can be cost-effective if much color printing is needed, though they are not great for photos. Online or in-store photo printing is a better deal than the high-quality ink-jet printers suited to photos.
  • Wool suits and iron-requiring cotton clothing, unless important to creating an impression needed to earn money in one's occupation. Iron-free cotton shirts with a fine pattern to hide residual wrinkles look great, save over a dollar each time plus time, and gas in laundering. Synthetic pants save multiple dollars each laundering and do not feel odd on legs because they are less sensitive than arms.
  • Most television and, to a lesser extent, movies. The purpose of television, from a financial perspective, is to cause you to watch advertisements to become unhappy that you do not own things you would not mind not owning. Few of these things are more than frivolous. More insidiously, there is a purpose to keep you watching, which drains efforts from possibly more enjoyable or educational (and thus potentially income-producing) activities. Many movies are about focusing on lavish and extravagant living and create a mindset incompatible with frugality.
  • Fancy cars. The fastest cars available accelerate about twice as fast as, corner about a third harder than, and have slicker, shinier seats than the cheapest. The differences are much more subtle. Mass-market cars such as family sedans and minivans and professional-driver-market vehicles such as town cars, vans and pickups have enormous companies optimizing them for things such as cost, comfort, fuel consumption, safety durability, and ease of maintenance. More expensive cars, even when not driven beyond the abilities of any others, often make large sacrifices in some of these things for small improvements in others. They also involve much higher overhead because of smaller sales volumes. If many people in your area replace good cars unnecessarily, a well-maintained and carefully inspected used car can save a great deal.
  • Video game consoles and other devices, electronics, with vendor lock-in. These may seem inexpensive and can be a good deal if one is sure one wants only few games or other accessories to play often. However, adapting them to various games or other uses requires paying an excessive markup each time. In contrast, a computer has many games available inexpensively once they've been out for a year or two and many made available free by their creators much like wikiHow, such as Nexuiz.

Taking good care of your finances

 

1
Actively manage your credit. A poor credit score costs tens of thousands over the years in increased interest rates and insurance costs. You may even lose your job or miss a job application. Pull all three reports; challenge everything that appears incorrect. Pay all bills on time or early. Pay off revolving debt (credit cards) and put those cards away.

2
Avoid the overdraft on debit cards. An overdraft may seem like a good idea, but it is simply one-step nearer to a pricey pitfall. Even if the bank you are with does not charge you for using the overdraft, they will charge you if you even conform over it. The good thing about debit cards is that you are not using money that you do not have, and an overdraft will most weaken your discipline over your finances. Do not do it! If you must currently have credit card debt or an overdraft do not forget to compare interest rates, on all your cards and overdraft. Consolidate loans to the most inexpensive one while paying off the debt.


Reducing housing expenses

 

1
Avoid excessive housing expenses. A safe area and, if you have children, one with a school where they will be permitted to learn in peace is important. If you enjoy a big yard and big windows, or convenient regular access to varied shopping (itself not helpful in frugality, like neighbors living extravagantly and often beyond their means), recognize, and pay for that. However, a house sits in the rain and rots slowly as it is being (hopefully) enjoyed, and can be replaced or copied on months' notice in ways that are being made more efficient continually. There is plenty of empty space to build them, and less-densely-developed areas can be expected to compete to make money from increased development over time if that is demanded. As recent history shows, it is not a great "investment" though it does have significant residual value and some people do make money with them.


 



 




 


 





 



 



 



 

 


 



 

 

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Finding good desktop wallpapers for your pc

http://windows.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/wallpaper


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The United Nations

The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization established on 24 October 1945 to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was created following the Second World War to prevent another such conflict. At its founding, the UN had 51 member states; there are now 193. The UN Headquarters is situated in Manhattan, New York City and enjoys extraterritoriality. Further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states. Its objectives include maintaining international peace and security, promoting human rights, fostering social and economic development, protecting the environment, and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine, natural disaster, and armed conflict.
During the Second World War, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt initiated talks on a successor agency to the League of Nations, and the United Nations Charter was drafted at a conference in April–June 1945; this charter took effect on 24 October 1945, and the UN began operation. The UN's mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in major actions in Korea and the Congo, as well as approving the creation of the state of Israel in 1947. The organization's membership grew significantly following widespread decolonization in the 1960s, and by the 1970s its budget for economic and social development programmes far outstripped its spending on peacekeeping. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military and peacekeeping missions across the world with varying degrees of success.
The UN has six principal organs: the General Assembly (the main deliberative assembly); the Security Council (for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security); the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) (for promoting international economic and social co-operation and development); the Secretariat (for providing studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN); the International Court of Justice (the primary judicial organ); and the United Nations Trusteeship Council (inactive since 1994). UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, and UNICEF. The UN's most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by South Korean Ban Ki-moon since 2007. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UN's work.
The organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UN's effectiveness have been mixed. Some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased.

Background and creation

In the century prior to the UN's creation, several international treaty organizations and conferences had been formed to regulate conflicts between nations, such as the International Committee of the Red Cross and the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907.[3] Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the Paris Peace Conference established the League of Nations to maintain harmony between countries.[4] This organization resolved some territorial disputes and created international structures for areas such as postal mail, aviation, and opium control, some of which would later be absorbed into the UN.[5] However, the League lacked representation for colonial peoples (then half the world's population) and significant participation from several major powers, including the US, USSR, Germany, and Japan; it failed to act against the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Second Italo-Ethiopian War in 1935, the Japanese invasion of China in 1937, and German expansions under Adolf Hitler that culminated in the Second World War.[6]


1942 "Declaration of United Nations" by the Allies of World War II

Main article: Declaration by United Nations
The earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939.[7] The text of the "Declaration by United Nations" was drafted by President Franklin Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Roosevelt aide Harry Hopkins, while meeting at the White House on 29 December 1941. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries.[b] The term was first officially used on 1–2 January 1942, when 26 governments signed the Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, which Stalin approved after Roosevelt insisted.[8][9] By 1 March 1945 it was signed by 21 more states.[10]
A JOINT DECLARATION BY THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND, THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS, CHINA, AUSTRALIA, BELGIUM, CANADA, COSTA RICA, CUBA, CZECHOSLOVAKIA, DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, EL SALVADOR, GREECE, GUATEMALA, HAITI, HONDURAS, INDIA, LUXEMBOURG, NETHERLANDS, NEW ZEALAND, NICARAGUA, NORWAY, PANAMA, POLAND, SOUTH AFRICA, YUGOSLAVIA
The Governments signatory hereto,
Having subscribed to a common program of purposes and principles embodied in the Joint Declaration of the President of the United States of America and the Prime Minister of Great Britain dated August 14,1941, known as the Atlantic Charter,
Being convinced that complete victory over their enemies is essential to defend life, liberty, independence and religious freedom, and to preserve human rights and justice in their own lands as well as in other lands, and that they are now engaged in a common struggle against savage and brutal forces seeking to subjugate the world,
DECLARE:
(1) Each Government pledges itself to employ its full resources, military or economic, against those members of the Tripartite Pact and its adherents with which such government is at war.
(2) Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto and not to make a separate armistice or peace with the enemies.
The foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism.[11]
During the war, the United Nations became the official term for the Allies. To join countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis.[12]

Founding the UN 1945

After months of planning, on 25 April, 1945, the UN Conference on International Organization opened in San Francisco, attended by 50 governments and a number of non-governmental organizations involved in drafting the United Nations Charter. The UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 upon ratification of the Charter by the five permanent members of the Security Council—France, the Republic of China, the Soviet Union, the UK and the US—and by a majority of the other 46 signatories.[13]
The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented,[c] and the Security Council took place in Methodist Central Hall Westminster in London beginning 6 January 1946.[13] The General Assembly selected New York City as the site for United Nations Headquarters, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory.[16] The Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General.




Though the UN's primary mandate was peacekeeping, the division between the US and USSR often paralysed the organization, generally allowing it to intervene only in conflicts distant from the Cold War.[17] (A notable exception was a Security Council resolution in 1950 authorizing a US-led coalition to repel the North Korean invasion of South Korea, passed in the absence of the USSR.)[13][18] In 1947, the General Assembly approved a resolution to partition Palestine, approving the creation of the state of Israel. Two years later, Ralph Bunche, a UN official, negotiated an armistice to the resulting conflict.[19] In 1956, the first UN peacekeeping force was established to end the Suez Crisis;[13] however, the UN was unable to intervene against the USSR's simultaneous invasion of Hungary following that country's revolution.[20]
In 1960, the UN deployed United Nations Operation in the Congo (UNOC), the largest military force of its early decades, to bring order to the breakaway State of Katanga, restoring it to the control of the Democratic Republic of the Congo by 1964.[21] While travelling to meet with rebel leader Moise Tshombe during the conflict, Dag Hammarskjöld, often named as one of the UN's most effective Secretaries-General,[22] died in a plane crash; months later he was posthumously awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.[23] In 1964, Hammarskjöld's successor, U Thant, deployed the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus, which would become one of the UN's longest-running peacekeeping missions.[24]
With the spread of decolonization in the 1960s, the organization's membership saw an influx of newly independent nations. In 1960 alone, 17 new states joined the UN, 16 of them from Africa.[13] On 25 October 1971, with opposition from the United States, but with the support of many Third World nations, the mainland, communist People's Republic of China was given the Chinese seat on the Security Council in place of the Republic of China that occupied Taiwan; the vote was widely seen as a sign of waning US influence in the organization.[25] Third World nations organized into the Group of 77 coalition under the leadership of Algeria, which briefly became a dominant power at the UN.[26] In 1975, a bloc comprising the USSR and Third World nations passed a resolution, over strenuous US and Israeli opposition, declaring Zionism to be racism; the resolution was repealed in 1991, shortly after the end of the Cold War.[27]
With an increasing Third World presence and the failure of UN mediation in conflicts in the Middle East, Vietnam, and Kashmir, the UN increasingly shifted its attention to its ostensibly secondary goals of economic development and cultural exchange.[28] By the 1970s, the UN budget for social and economic development was far greater than its peacekeeping budget.

After the Cold War, the UN saw a radical expansion in its peacekeeping duties, taking on more missions in ten years than it had in the previous four decades.[29] Between 1988 and 2000, the number of adopted Security Council resolutions more than doubled, and the peacekeeping budget increased more than tenfold.[30][31] The UN negotiated an end to the Salvadoran Civil War, launched a successful peacekeeping mission in Namibia, and oversaw democratic elections in post-apartheid South Africa and post-Khmer Rouge Cambodia.[32] In 1991, the UN authorized a US-led coalition that repulsed the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.[33] Brian Urquhart, Under-Secretary-General from 1971 to 1985, later described the hopes raised by these successes as a "false renaissance" for the organization, given the more troubled missions that followed.[34]
Though the UN Charter had been written primarily to prevent aggression by one nation against another, in the early 1990s the UN faced a number of simultaneous, serious crises within nations such as Somalia, Haiti, Mozambique, and the former Yugoslavia.[35] The UN mission in Somalia was widely viewed as a failure after the US withdrawal following casualties in the Battle of Mogadishu, and the UN mission to Bosnia faced "worldwide ridicule" for its indecisive and confused mission in the face of ethnic cleansing.[36] In 1994, the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda failed to intervene in the Rwandan Genocide amid indecision in the Security Council.[37]
Beginning in the last decades of the Cold War, American and European critics of the UN condemned the organization for perceived mismanagement and corruption.[38] In 1984, the US President, Ronald Reagan, withdrew his nation's funding from UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, founded 1946) over allegations of mismanagement, followed by Britain and Singapore.[39][40] Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Secretary-General from 1992 to 1996, initiated a reform of the Secretariat, reducing the size of the organization somewhat.[41][42] His successor, Kofi Annan (1997–2006), initiated further management reforms in the face of threats from the United States to withhold its UN dues.[42]
In the late 1990s and 2000s, international interventions authorized by the UN took a wider variety of forms. The UN mission in the Sierra Leone Civil War of 1991–2002 was supplemented by British Royal Marines, and the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 was overseen by NATO.[43] In 2003, the United States invaded Iraq despite failing to pass a UN Security Council resolution for authorization, prompting a new round of questioning of the organization's effectiveness.[44] Under the current Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon, the UN has intervened with peacekeepers in crises including the War in Darfur in Sudan and the Kivu conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo and sent observers and chemical weapons inspectors to the Syrian Civil War.[45] In 2013, an internal review of UN actions in the final battles of the Sri Lankan Civil War in 2009 concluded that the organization had suffered "systemic failure".[46] One hundred and one UN personnel died in the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the worst loss of life in the organization's history.

Structure

Main article: United Nations System
The United Nations' system is based on five principal organs: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the Secretariat, and the International Court of Justice.[47] A sixth principal organ, the Trusteeship Council, suspended operations in 1994, upon the independence of Palau, the last remaining UN trustee territory.[48]
Four of the five principal organs are located at the main UN Headquarters in New York City.[49] The International Court of Justice is located in The Hague, while other major agencies are based in the UN offices at Geneva,[50] Vienna,[51] and Nairobi.[52] Other UN institutions are located throughout the world. The six official languages of the United Nations, used in intergovernmental meetings and documents, are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.[53] On the basis of the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, the UN and its agencies are immune from the laws of the countries where they operate, safeguarding the UN's impartiality with regard to the host and member countries.[54]
Below the six organs sit, in the words of the author Linda Fasulo, "an amazing collection of entities and organizations, some of which are actually older than the UN itself and operate with almost complete independence from it".[55] These include specialized agencies, research and training institutions, programmes and funds, and other UN entities.[56]
The United Nations obey the Noblemaire principle, which is binding on any organisation that belongs to the united nations system. This principle calls for salaries that will draw and keep citizens of countries where salaries are highest, and also calls for equal pay for work of equal value independent of the employee's nationality.[57][58] Staff salaries are subject to an internal tax that is administered by the UN organizations.[57][59][60]


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